Michael Turner
Keep base pack weight between 6–12 kg (13–26 lb); total carried mass should not exceed 20–25% of body weight including food and water.
Map daily mileage: target 15–25 km on mixed trails; reduce to 8–12 km when daily elevation gain exceeds 800 m. Place camps every 10–20 km or every 4–8 hours of moving time; carry at least one extra day of food when resupply points lie beyond 48 km.
Choose shelter weighing 400 g–1.6 kg depending on solo or duo setup; typical tent packed weight 1.0–1.8 kg, single-wall options lighter. Select a sleeping bag with a comfort rating roughly 5–7°C warmer than expected night low; synthetic fill retains loft when damp. Use a sleeping pad with R-value ≥3.0 below 0°C, 1.5–2.5 in warm conditions.
Assemble clothing in layers: moisture-wicking base, 1–2 insulating mid-layers, durable shell with minimum 10,000 mm hydrostatic head and breathability ~10,000 g/m²·24h. Pack two pairs of socks, lightweight camp shoes ≤300 g, and a compact repair kit including needle, cord, spare button and 1 m of adhesive fabric tape.
Estimate water consumption at 2–4 L daily depending on temperature and exertion; treat unfiltered sources with a microfilter (~250 g), UV pen (~95 g) or chlorine dioxide drops. Allocate 2,000–4,000 kcal per day: dehydrated meals typically deliver 500–800 kcal per 100 g; add 300–600 kcal of high-energy snacks while moving.
Carry paper map and compass as primary navigation plus a GPS device or smartphone with offline maps; include a 10,000 mAh power bank and conserve battery by switching to airplane mode when idle. First aid kit 150–300 g with blister care, 2–4 adhesive dressings, wound-closure strips, antiseptic wipes and a small elastic bandage. Leave an itinerary with a trusted contact and set check-in times at 24–48 hour intervals.
Route selection and load targets
Choose a daily mileage target: 12–18 km; cap pack weight at 15% of body mass (base weight under 8 kg; total fully loaded under 15 kg). Aim to hike 5–7 hours daily with 30–45 minute breaks every 2–3 hours.
Hydration: estimate 0.5–1.0 L per hour during moderate effort below 2,000 m; increase to 1.0–1.5 L per hour above 2,000 m. Carry primary capacity 2–3 L plus a treatment method: mechanical filter 0.1–0.2 μm or UV pen; chemical tablets (iodine or chlorine dioxide) as backup. Nutrition: target 2,500–3,500 kcal/day; prioritize energy density: nuts ≈600 kcal/100 g, energy bars ≈450 kcal/100 g, freeze-dried meals 350–500 kcal/100 g. Aim food weight 0.6–1.0 kg/day.
Shelter and sleep system: tent packed weight ≤2 kg; tarps acceptable if weight <1 kg and local regulations permit. Select a sleeping bag with comfort rating at least 5°C colder than the expected lowest night temperature. Sleeping pad R-value ≥3.0 in alpine terrain; ≥1.5 in summer valleys.
Navigation and electronics: carry a topographic map at 1:50,000 and a reliable compass; practice bearings before departure. Use a GPS device or smartphone with offline maps; bring a 10,000 mAh power bank (≈2–3 full phone charges) plus 4–8 spare AA/AAA cells. Check weather 48–72 hours prior to departure and download route files plus emergency contacts.
Permits and logistics: obtain permits 3–6 months prior to start date in high-demand zones; confirm trail closures 7–14 days prior. Emergency kit: personal locator beacon or satellite messenger, basic first-aid (sterile gauze, adhesive strips, moleskin, compresses, tape, antiseptic wipes), repair kit (duct tape, needle, cordage), headlamp with two spare batteries.
Training and skills: complete loaded-pack sessions 2–4 weeks before departure: three sessions per week with progressive long hikes peaking at 18–22 km at target weight. Practice water crossing technique, river-reading, and a core knot set: bowline, figure-eight, clove hitch.
Clothing and weather gear: adopt a three-layer system – base wicking layer, mid insulating layer (200–400 g fleece or down), waterproof breathable shell rated ≥10,000 mm hydrostatic pressure and ≥10,000 g/m2/24h breathability. Bring two pairs of socks and quick-dry underwear. Carry a compact umbrella as a lightweight rain option – see best umbrellas compact stick golf.
Estimate Daily Mileage and Build a Realistic Itinerary with Contingency Days
Set a base daily target: 12–15 miles (19–24 km) on well-maintained trails with moderate elevation; 8–10 miles (13–16 km) on technical routes or when carrying heavy loads.
Calculate daily distance
Use Naismith’s rule as a quick timing method: allow 1 hour per 5 km (3 mi) plus 1 hour per 600 m (2,000 ft) ascent. Typical sustained walking speeds: easy trail 4.8–5.6 km/h (3.0–3.5 mph); mixed terrain with standard pack 3.2–4.0 km/h (2.0–2.5 mph); technical route or heavy pack 2.4–3.2 km/h (1.5–2.0 mph).
Estimate available moving hours: summer daylight ~10–14 hours; realistic moving window usually 6–8 hours. Multiply chosen speed by moving hours, then add ascent penalty from Naismith to confirm distance fits daylight. Include 30–90 minutes per day of short breaks plus 1–2 hours for navigation, meals and photo stops.
Example: target 15 miles (24 km) with 3,000 ft (900 m) ascent. Choose mixed-terrain speed 2.5 mph: base moving time 6 hours; ascent penalty 3,000/2,000 = 1.5 hours; breaks 1.5 hours; total day length = 9 hours. If daylight available ≥10 hours, target is realistic; if daylight shorter or terrain worse, reduce target to 10–12 miles.
Allocate contingency days and adjust itinerary
Reserve a time buffer equal to 10–25% of scheduled days, minimum one full day. Practical guidelines: outings ≤7 days add 1–2 buffer days; 8–21 days add 10–15% extra days; >21 days add 7–10% plus two fixed slack days. Turn buffer into concrete slots such as one mid-route rest/resupply day and one weather-hold day near key exits.
Place contingency where it yields maximum flexibility: after long high-elevation legs, before mandatory permit pickups or prior to a final exit with transport reservations. Use buffer days as short-mileage days (half-days) when conditions slip rather than all-or-nothing rests to preserve schedule integrity.
Carry at least one extra day of food per 160 km (100 miles) of route length, plus one additional day when resupply access is uncertain. When campsites or permits are fixed, shift planned short days earlier in the schedule to create slack near the end and reduce risk of missed connections.
Water sources, carry volume and purification
Carry enough water to span the single longest dry stretch: multiply hours between dependable sources by your hourly consumption (0.5–1.0 L/hour in cool to hot conditions), add 0.5–1.0 L per night for cooking/cleaning and round up with a 20–30% safety margin.
Identify reliable sources
Use topo maps, recent ranger reports and recent trip logs to mark perennial springs, named creeks, lakes, reservoirs and developed water points. Prefer springs, river confluences and meadow-fed streams; avoid ephemeral gullies, south-facing drainages late season and water downstream of campsites, stock corrals or latrines (collect at least 100 m upstream of obvious contamination). Seasonal cues: early season = snowmelt runs strong but turbid; late season = small tributaries may dry. Visual indicators of reliability: standing pools at channel bends, persistent green riparian vegetation, springs issuing from rock bases. If uncertain, treat the source as potentially contaminated.
Choose purification and compute practical carry
Method selection by water type and weight tolerance: mechanical filters (hollow-fiber or ceramic, 0.1–0.3 μm) remove protozoa and most bacteria but not viruses; chemical disinfectants (chlorine dioxide tablets/liquid) inactivate bacteria, protozoa and many viruses when allowed proper contact time; UV devices (battery-powered) quickly inactivate pathogens in clear water but fail with turbidity; boiling (rolling boil 1 minute at sea level; extend to ~3 minutes above ~2,000 m) is universally effective but fuel/time intensive. Best practice: primary method (filter or UV) plus chemical tablets as backup.
Practical carry calculation example: longest dry gap = 12 hours, expected exertion = 0.7 L/hour → 8.4 L; add 0.8 L for camp use → 9.2 L; add 25% reserve → 11.5 L. Weight trade-off: 1 L ≈ 1 kg (2.2 lb), so 11.5 L ≈ 11.5 kg. Options if that weight is unacceptable: cache sealed containers at strategic points, reduce exertion/day mileage to lower hourly consumption, reschedule route to hit a known reliable source, or switch to a lighter purification system enabling faster resupply from smaller sources.
Field tips: pre-filter murky water through a bandana to protect cartridges; backflush/clean filters per manufacturer to extend service life; carry spare O-rings and a small chemical bottle or extra tablets as emergency backup; keep bottles/filters from freezing at night (store inside clothing or sleeping bag) to avoid damage.
Select shelter, sleep system and backpack by weight, season and terrain
Target base weight: 6–9 kg (13–20 lb) during summer singletrack in non-technical terrain; 8–12 kg (18–26 lb) during shoulder seasons; 12–18 kg (26–40 lb) in winter when carrying a four-season shelter and heavier insulation.
Shelter selection by season and ground type: single-wall non-freestanding one-person shelters 700–900 g work well on warm exposed ridgelines where rain risk is low; three-season double-wall two-person tents 1.0–1.6 kg balance weight and vestibule space in mixed conditions; four-season geodesic tents 2.2–3.5 kg are designed to withstand sustained wind and snow. Choose floor fabric 30D PU-coated nylon to add 200–400 g but reduce abrasion damage on sharp rock and glacier grit.
Sleep system metrics: use a temperature buffer of ~10°C below expected nighttime low when selecting a lower-limit rating. Down fill-power matters: 800 fp delivers roughly 30–40% less fill mass than 650 fp for the same temperature rating. Representative masses: 0°C down bag at 800 fp ~500–700 g; -10°C down bag at 800 fp ~1,000–1,300 g; synthetic equivalents typically add 20–50% mass and retain loft when wet. Quilts commonly save 300–500 g versus mummy bags when sleeping style allows exposed footbox.
Pad R-value and weight tradeoffs: summer R 1.0–2.0 (light air pad or closed-cell foam 80–120 g); three-season R 2.0–4.0 (insulated air pad 350–550 g); winter R ≥5.0 (high-R air pad 600–800 g plus optional closed-cell underlay). Combine a thin CCF (80–120 g) and insulated air pad to reach high R with redundancy and puncture resistance.
Pack volume and fit: 25–35 L for overnight minimalist carries; 40–55 L for 3–5 day outings in temperate conditions; 60–75 L for multi-week or winter setups; 80–100 L for extended expeditions with group gear. Empty pack mass targets: 0.6–1.2 kg ultralight; 1.2–2.2 kg mainstream. Measure torso length from C7 vertebra to iliac crest and choose hipbelt that transfers 60–80% of carried mass to hips. Place heavy items close to the back between shoulder blades; keep light items low to stabilize the load.
Terrain-driven choices: in rocky terrain prioritize abrasion-resistant base, strong external frame or reinforced internal frame, and short hipbelt travel to avoid snagging; in wet forest pick a double-wall shelter with generous vestibule and mesh door closures to manage condensation; in snow choose 4-season tunnel or geodesic shelters with multiple guy points, pole clips that accept higher-tension loads, and snow-specific anchors such as flukes or deadman systems.
Material and component tradeoffs quantified: 10D vs 20D canopy saves ~150–300 g but decreases tear resistance; 20D vs 30D floor adds ~200–400 g and increases puncture longevity. Titanium stakes save ~20–40 g each vs aluminum but cost rises; swapping eight aluminum to titanium yields ~160–320 g savings. Upgrading to 800 fp down typically reduces bag mass by 200–400 g compared with 650 fp at equal temperature rating.
Concrete selection examples by scenario: summer ridge system: single-wall solo shelter 0.8 kg + 800 fp quilt 0.45 kg + R3 pad 0.4 kg = ~1.65 kg combined. Shoulder-season mixed: 3-season 2P tent 1.4 kg + 0°C down bag 0.65 kg + R3.5 pad 0.5 kg = ~2.55 kg. Winter alpine: 4-season tent 3.0 kg + -15°C bag 1.5 kg + R6 pad 0.8 kg = ~5.3 kg.
If evaluating appliance reliability during gear storage research, see are there any problems with beko freezers.
Minimal repair and maintenance kit: 10 cm duct tape strip, 10 cm zipper tape, 1 pole splint, 1 m shock cord, 6–10 spare stakes inline with terrain type, small sewing awl with heavy thread. Use a lightweight pack liner or dry bags to prolong insulation and keep sleeping bag loft dry during extended wet periods.
Meal strategy – daily calories, timing, resupply
Target 2,800–4,500 kcal daily: 30–35% fat, 12–18% protein, remainder carbohydrates; raise intake 10–25% per extra 1,000 ft elevation above 8,000 ft or under sustained cold.
Daily calories and macronutrients
- Energy tiers by exertion:
- Light effort (8–12 mi/day): 2,200–2,800 kcal/day.
- Moderate (12–20 mi/day): 2,800–3,600 kcal/day.
- High (>20 mi/day or heavy pack): 3,600–4,800+ kcal/day.
- Protein target: 1.2–1.8 g/kg body weight daily; aim for 20–30 g protein at main meals to support recovery.
- Fat target: 30–40% of total calories; include pure fats (olive oil, nut butter) to raise kcal density without much weight.
- Energy density quick reference:
- Olive oil: ~9 kcal/g.
- Nut butter: ~6 kcal/g.
- Mixed nuts: ~5.8 kcal/g.
- Chocolate: ~5.3 kcal/g.
- Dried fruit: ~3.0 kcal/g.
- Freeze-dried meals (ready): 3.5–4.5 kcal/g rehydrated; 4.0–5.0 kcal/g dehydrated dry weight depending on ingredients.
- Carry-weight math: to supply 3,500 kcal/day with average food at 4.5 kcal/g requires ~780 g/day dry weight; at 5.5 kcal/g requires ~640 g/day.
Meal timing, sample menus, resupply logistics
- Daily eating rhythm:
- Breakfast (within 30 min of waking): 600–900 kcal – quick-cook oats + powdered milk + nut butter + honey.
- Mid-morning snack (on trail): 200–350 kcal – energy bar, trail mix packet, chocolate.
- Lunch (short break): 500–800 kcal – tortilla + cheese + salami or tuna sachet; dried fruit.
- Afternoon snack: 200–400 kcal – nut butter packet + crackers or dense cookie.
- Dinner (main meal): 700–1,200 kcal – freeze-dried entrée rehydrated, added olive oil or cheese, dehydrated mashed potatoes or instant rice.
- Bedtime snack: 150–300 kcal – nut butter or chocolate to aid overnight recovery.
- Sample single-day weight/calorie breakdown (3,500 kcal target):
- Breakfast: 800 kcal, 180 g dry (oats 80 g, powdered milk 30 g, nut butter 40 g, honey 30 g).
- Snacks combined: 700 kcal, 140 g (trail mix 80 g, energy bar 60 g).
- Lunch: 700 kcal, 150 g (tortilla 80 g, cheese 40 g, tuna pouch 30 g).
- Dinner: 1,000 kcal, 200 g (freeze-dried entrée 120 g dry + added oil 20 g + cheese 60 g).
- Bed snack: 300 kcal, 50 g (nut butter packet + chocolate).
- Total dry weight ≈ 720 g; total kcal ≈ 3,500.
- Cooking and prep notes:
- Choose quick-cook grains and pre-cut dehydrated vegetables to shave boil time to 3–8 minutes.
- Boost calories and palatability by adding 10–30 g oil or cheese to each rehydrated meal (+90–270 kcal per meal).
- Cold-soak breakfast where possible to save fuel and time; oats, milk powder, dried fruit rehydrate overnight in insulated mug.
- Resupply cadence and logistics:
- Typical cadence: every 3–7 days depending on daily mileage and carry-capacity.
- Choose intervals that keep carry weight under target daily-weight multiplied by days to next resupply (example: 3,500 kcal/day × 4 days ≈ 2.8 kg dry food).
- Ship boxes to post offices or outfitters with confirmed pickup hours; label with name, expected arrival date, and include backup items in case of delay.
- Include one extra day of calories in each resupply as buffer; place a compact high-fat emergency bar in top of box for immediate access.
- When towns are sparse, switch to ultra-dense items (oil, nut butter, chocolate, jerky) to reduce carry weight while keeping kcal high.
- Fuel and stove estimate:
- Estimate 1 × 230 g canister per 7–12 days when boiling two small pots daily; adjust up when melting snow or using long boil grains.
- Instant meals and cold-soak reduce fuel usage by 30–60% compared with full-boil meals.
- Packing technique:
- Pre-portion meals into single-serving, labeled zip bags or vacuum packs; group by day in a lightweight dry sack to speed resupply sorting.
- Store high-energy snacks in easy-access pockets to avoid unpacking during short stops.
Navigation and route management: maps, GPS waypoints and offline backups
Carry two independent navigation sources: printed topographic maps and an electronic GPS device with exported waypoint & track files.
Maps: use 1:24,000 (US 7.5′) or 1:25,000 scale where available; choose contour intervals 10 m (≈33 ft) in steep terrain, 20 m (≈66 ft) in moderate terrain. Print map sheets covering the corridor plus a 5 km buffer on each side. Laminate critical pages or place inside a waterproof map case; mark planned camps, major water points, elevation gains per day, and three alternate exit points per map sheet.
Coordinate systems: set devices to WGS84 decimal degrees or UTM grid depending on local rescue standards. Sync map grid and GPS datum before departure; save a short checksum note with the datum used (example: “WGS84 / UTM Zone 12N”).
Waypoint conventions: adopt a compact, machine‑friendly naming scheme: TYPE_DAY_SEQ (TYPE = CAM/WTR/PASS/EXIT/RESC), DAY = planned day number, SEQ = 2-digit sequence. Example: CAM_03_02, WTR_02_01. Include elevation (m) and estimated time-to-reach (hh:mm) inside the waypoint description field.
Track management: pre-load the intended route as a GPX track, but keep a simpler “backbone” track with only major turns and bailouts (≤50 points) to aid quick re-routing. Record a continuous track while moving and save daily copies labeled by date-time stamp.
Power and device redundancy: handheld GPS with AA cells typically runs 20–60 hours depending on sampling rate; set logging interval to 60–120 s to extend life. Smartphone mapping apps consume 10–20% battery per hour with screen-on; use airplane mode with GPS enabled, screen off when possible. Carry at minimum: 4 spare AA cells (if using AA device) and a 10,000 mAh USB battery pack (estimated to add 24–48 hours to a phone, depending on model). Keep backup microSD card containing offline maps and GPX files.
Offline backups: export route and waypoints to GPX and KMZ formats; export raster map pages to PDF and to MBTiles or offline tile packages used by your app. Store two independent copies: one on device internal storage and one on removable microSD or external USB drive. Pre-upload GPX + PDFs to a cloud account accessible from basecamp so an emergency contact can retrieve them if necessary.
Emergency routing: pre-identify exit points with road access and mark distance and elevation change from nearest waypoint. Place bailout points roughly every 5–10 km or every 3–6 hours of expected travel, whichever comes first; flag at least one bailout with vehicle access within 8 hours walking time on conservative pace (3–4 km/h uphill adjusted).
| Item | Minimum recommendation | Notes |
|---|---|---|
| Paper topo maps | Route corridor + 5 km buffer, printed at 1:24k/1:25k | Laminated or in waterproof case; highlight camps, water, exits |
| GPS device | Handheld GPS or smartphone with offline maps | Set logging interval to 60–120 s; carry spare AA or powerbank |
| Waypoint files | GPX + KMZ, named TYPE_DAY_SEQ | Include elevation and ETA in descriptions |
| Offline map storage | Allocate ≥1 GB per 200 km route at high zoom | MBTiles or app tile packs preferred; keep duplicate copy |
| Battery backup | 10,000 mAh powerbank + 4 spare AA (if needed) | Store powerbank in waterproof pouch; charge devices nightly |
| Exit/bailout spacing | Every 5–10 km or every 3–6 hours | Mark elevation change and conservative travel time |
Routine checks: before departure confirm datum alignment on all devices, test open route on each device, and perform a dry run of exporting/importing GPX into the chosen app. Each evening save the day’s track with a timestamped filename and copy it to the backup microSD.
