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Carry 2–3 L of water per person per day; use a 1 L reservoir plus 1–2 L bottles or a single 2 L bladder. Target liquid mass ~2–3 kg on single-day treks, ~4–6 kg during multi-day outings in hot conditions.
Clothing: base layer (merino or synthetic) 150–250 g; insulating mid-layer (light fleece or 800-fill down jacket) 300–600 g; waterproof breathable shell with ≥20,000 mm column. Pack one spare pair of socks; include a lightweight hat and thin gloves rated to expected low temps. Select insulation rated ~5°C below forecast night low.
Shelter and sleep system: 1–2 person tent weighing 1–2.5 kg; emergency bivy 50–100 g as backup. Sleeping bag temperature rating ~5°C below expected night low; target bag mass 800–1,500 g depending on season. Sleep pad with R-value ≥3.0 during cold nights; inflatable pads typically 200–600 g.
Food and fuel: plan 2,500–4,000 kcal per person per day depending on intensity; use foods with 400–600 kcal per 100 g to minimize pack mass. Stove fuel: 100–250 g canister expected over 2–3 days with a lightweight canister stove; carry a compact backup such as alcohol tabs. Use resealable bags to portion meals and reduce waste.
Navigation and light: paper map + compass always. Add a handheld GPS or smartphone with offline maps plus a power bank 10,000–20,000 mAh. Headlamp output ≥150 lumens for basic tasks; 300+ lumens if group cooking or route-finding at night. Keep an itinerary with a trusted contact at base camp.
Safety and repair: compact first-aid kit containing blister pads, adhesive strips, 4–6 antiseptic wipes, elastic wrap, pain relievers, tweezers. Fire kit: lighter + waterproof matches + ferro rod. Repair kit: multi-tool, ~1 m duct tape, 3–5 m cord, several zip ties, patch kit for stove or sleeping pad.
Extras: trekking poles reduce joint load; lightweight sit pad adds insulation while resting; carry a trowel plus waste bags when digging human waste holes. Use a bear-resistant container or odor-proof sacks where required. Store electronics in waterproof dry bags; label critical items with emergency contact and medical notes.
Packing checklist: technical items on trail
Carry 2–3 L of water in a reservoir plus a 0.5 L collapsible bottle as an emergency reserve; plan consumption at 0.5–1.0 L per hour in moderate temperatures and increase to ~1.5 L per hour above 30°C or during sustained uphill effort. Include a reliable filter (inline or pump) with a spare set of filter elements or a 20-tablet chemical treatment pack; treatable volume per cartridge typically ranges from hundreds to tens of thousands of liters depending on model.
Target 300–600 kcal per hour of activity; daily intake typically 1,500–3,500 kcal depending on exertion. Carry two ready-to-cook meals (600–800 kcal each), three energy bars (300–400 kcal each), and ~150 g trail mix (≈700–900 kcal). Bring a compact stove plus a 100–230 g fuel canister to prepare hot meals and rehydrate calories, and pack electrolyte sachets at a ratio of one sachet per 500 mL of water.
Shelter choices: ultralight one- to two-person tent (1–1.8 kg) or tarp configuration with reinforced guy points (30–50 g/m² fabric). Sleep system: bag or quilt rated to desired minimum temp (example: 20–25°F / −7 to −4°C for cooler nights) paired with an insulated pad R-value ≥3.0. Clothing: merino or synthetic base layer top 150–200 g, insulating mid layer 200–350 g, waterproof breathable shell with hydrostatic head ≥10,000 mm and taped seams, plus two pairs of socks (one worn, one spare) and a lightweight beanie and gloves adjusted to expected conditions.
Navigation and emergency kit: paper map at 1:25,000 or 1:50,000 scale and a reliable compass, handheld GPS or smartphone with offline maps plus a 5,000–10,000 mAh power bank. Carry a PLB or satellite messenger with ≥48-hour battery life in active mode if traveling outside cellular coverage. Include a headlamp with ≥300 lumens and two spare battery sets, a 120 dB whistle, and a compact 20–30 cm multi-tool.
Repair and hygiene: 10 m paracord (550 cord), patch kit for pads, spare zipper pulls, 1–2 m duct tape wrapped on a tiny core, needles and thread, and 3–5 spare tent stakes. First-aid: compact kit with ~10 adhesive dressings, two 10×10 cm sterile gauze pads, 25 mm adhesive tape roll, blister treatment, personal prescription meds sealed in waterproof packaging, 60 mL hand sanitizer, and a small biodegradable soap bottle ≤60 mL.
Load management and organisation: aim for base weight (excluding food and water) of ~6–10 kg on day outings and ~8–12 kg on multi-day treks; keep total carried mass below ~20–30% of body weight unless specifically trained to carry more. Position heavy items close to the torso and slightly above hip level, stash frequently used items in hipbelt pockets or top-lid compartments, and use dry sacks sized 1–3 L (small) and 8–15 L (large) to separate shelter, sleep system, and clothing; label each sack with contents on waterproof tape.
Water and hydration: how much to carry by hike length and purification options
Carry at least 0.5 L per hour of moderate exertion; increase to 0.75–1.0 L/hr in hot weather or on steep, fast-paced treks and plan an extra 25–50% reserve if water sources are uncertain.
Hydration amounts by trek length
Short outings (2,500 m): add ~0.5 L/day due to increased fluid loss.
Keep a reservoir or bottle with at least 250–500 ml accessible on the shoulder strap or belt to avoid stopping for every sip; refill frequently to avoid large fluctuations in hydration.
Water-treatment options and selection guide
Filters (pump, gravity, straw): mechanical filters with 0.1–0.2 µm pores remove bacteria and protozoa (Giardia, Cryptosporidium). Typical flow: pump 0.5–1.5 L/min, gravity 0.5–2.0 L/min, straw for single-user sipping. Lifespan varies 1,000–10,000 L depending on cartridge and water turbidity; backflush regularly and carry spare O-rings or prefilters.
Chemicals (chlorine dioxide tablets): lightweight, compact (a few grams per treatment). Contact times: ~30 minutes for most bacteria/viruses, up to 4 hours for Cryptosporidium. Iodine tablets work on bacteria/viruses but are less reliable on Cryptosporidium and leave taste; avoid iodine for long-term use, pregnancy, or thyroid conditions.
UV devices (battery-powered pens): inactivate bacteria, viruses and protozoa in clear water in ~45–90 seconds per liter; performance drops with turbidity–pre-filter cloudy water. Batteries and cold reduce output; bring spare batteries or a power bank.
Boiling: bring water to a rolling boil for 1 minute at sea level; at elevations above ~2,000 m boil for 3 minutes. Boiling kills all pathogens but adds fuel/time cost and removes no sediment.
Combination strategies: use a mechanical filter to remove sediment and protozoa, then apply chemical or UV treatment to handle viruses where they are a concern (international travel, downstream of human settlements). In remote alpine areas with only clear, fast-flowing streams, a filter or UV pen alone is often sufficient.
Quick decision rules: if sources are abundant, fast-flowing and cold, a lightweight straw or pump filter is practical; if water is scarce or suspect (near livestock, campsites, or settlements), carry extra treated volume and use filter+chemical or UV to cover viruses. Always estimate worst-case supply duration and carry a reserve equal to one extra planned day of use.
Navigation and communication: choosing maps, GPS devices, and emergency signaling
Carry a paper topographic map at 1:24,000 (or 1:25,000 metric), a baseplate compass, a handheld GNSS receiver with offline maps and replaceable cells, plus an emergency locator beacon (PLB) or satellite messenger with SOS and two‑way messaging.
Maps, compass and GNSS: concrete specs
Paper map: select 1:24,000 (USGS) or 1:25,000 scale; contour interval ~10 m typical; weight 20–60 g depending on fold and lamination; store in a waterproof pouch. Compass: baseplate model with adjustable declination and mirrored sighting (approx. 70–120 g). GNSS: choose units supporting multi‑constellation (GPS+GLONASS+Galileo) and WAAS/EGNOS; expected horizontal accuracy 2–5 m under clear sky. Prefer devices with replaceable AA/AAA cells if long field uptime required; reserve 4–8 spare cells. Preload map tiles covering planned corridor plus two alternate exit routes; save a copy of all waypoints as GPX on microSD and a phone microSD/backups drive. Set device datum to WGS84 and verify waypoint-to-waypoint routing at home before departure.
Emergency signaling and practical setup
PLB: transmits on 406 MHz to COSPAS‑SARSAT, manufacturer battery life typically 24–48 hours continuous; register serial online with owner and emergency contact data. Satellite messenger: provides two‑way messaging, tracking, remote check‑in; battery life varies widely – expect 2–14 days with tracking intervals of 2–30 minutes depending on model and settings. Carry a whistle rated ~90 dB and use three short blasts as international distress signal; signal mirror or handheld heliograph increases daytime detection range multiple kilometers in clear sun. Include a compact USB power bank (10,000 mAh ≈ two smartphone charges; weight ~200 g) and an outlet or cable compatible with GNSS/messenger. Store batteries and electronics inside waterproof, insulated pockets to reduce cold performance loss. Record ICE (in case of emergency) medical notes and contacts in device profiles and on a laminated paper card.
| Item | Typical weight (g) | Power / endurance | Accuracy / range | Notes |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Paper topo map (single area) | 20–60 | no power | scale dependent | Waterproof pouch recommended |
| Baseplate compass | 70–120 | no power | directional only | Adjustable declination speeds bearings |
| Handheld GNSS receiver | 150–350 | AA/replaceable or rechargeable; 15–50 hr typical | 2–5 m (open sky) | Multi‑constellation + offline tiles advised |
| Satellite messenger (two‑way) | 70–140 | days to weeks depending on tracking rate | global via satellite network | Use for emergency text, tracking, check‑ins |
| PLB (406 MHz) | 150–220 | 24–48 hr continuous transmission | global COSPAS‑SARSAT | One‑button SOS; register owner data |
| Whistle / signal mirror / strobe | 10–80 | no power / none / battery dependent | audible/visual up to km scale | Whistle: three blasts = distress |
| Power bank (10,000 mAh) | 180–250 | recharges devices multiple times | n/a | Insulate in cold to retain capacity |
Quick checklist: map + compass + GNSS with offline tiles + PLB or satellite messenger + spare batteries + power bank + whistle + signal mirror + waterproof storage and registered device details.
Clothing layers: selecting base, insulating, and waterproof pieces for changing conditions
Recommended kit: next-to-skin layer 150–200 g/m² merino or polyester, mid insulating layer 100–250 g (fleece or synthetic), plus a waterproof-breathable shell with 10,000+ mm hydrostatic head and fully taped seams.
Base layer specifics
Material & weight: Choose merino 150–200 g/m² for low-odor performance and moderate insulation; use polyester 140–180 g/m² for faster drying and lower cost. For high-output activity in warm weather, select lightweight 120–140 g/m² synthetic. Avoid cotton. Fit: close to the skin to move moisture; slim sleeves reduce chafing under layers. Care: wash in technical detergent and avoid fabric softener to preserve wicking and insulation.
Insulation and shell details
Insulators: Fleece grid (100–200 g) or full fleece (200–300 g) for breath and quick dry; synthetic insulated jackets (Primaloft, 60–200 g fill equivalent) maintain loft when wet – add ~30–50% more fill compared to down for the same warmth. Down fill-power: 700–900 FP; recommended down fill weights: 150–300 g for active cool-weather use (+5°C to +10°C while moving), 300–600 g for cold stops or low-output phases (−10°C to +5°C), 600+ g for extended exposure below −10°C. Use a lightweight insulated layer for moving and a heavier “stop” jacket for breaks.
Waterproof shell metrics: Hydrostatic head: 10,000 mm = reliable rain protection for prolonged showers; 20,000 mm+ for sustained heavy rain. Breathability: MVTR ≥10,000 g/m²/24h recommended for aerobic activity; membrane types include ePTFE (Gore-Tex), PU laminates, and proprietary high-MVTR fabrics. Look for full seam-taping, pit zips or large front zips for ventilation, helmet-compatible hood, adjustable hem and cuffs, and articulated sleeves. Keep DWR treatment functional; reapply after 2–3 seasons or when water no longer beads.
Layering tactics: Vent to regulate microclimate – open pit zips, jacket front, or remove the mid layer when sweating. Carry one spare base layer and an extra pair of socks stored dry in a waterproof stuff sack. Store down in a breathable bag while wearing and use a waterproof pouch when compressing wet environments. Target total carryable clothing weight of 800–1,500 g for the three-layer set depending on season and activity intensity.
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Food and fuel: calorie planning, compact meal ideas, and stove/fuel choices
Aim for 3,000–4,000 kcal per active day: plan 300–500 kcal per hour for moderate-paced trekking and 500–700 kcal per hour for steep or cold conditions.
Calorie targets and macronutrient split
- Daily targets:
- Low-moderate effort: 2,200–2,800 kcal/day
- Moderate effort (typical day with load): 3,000–3,800 kcal/day
- High effort / cold: 3,800–4,500+ kcal/day
- Hourly guideline: 300–700 kcal/hr depending on slope, speed and temperature.
- Macronutrients: target ~55–65% carbs, 15–25% protein, 20–30% fat to balance immediate energy and prolonged calories from fats/nuts.
- Calorie density references:
- Nuts/seeds: ~600 kcal/100 g
- Peanut/almond butter: ~600–650 kcal/100 g
- Chocolate: ~520–560 kcal/100 g
- Hard cheese: ~400 kcal/100 g
- Dehydrated dinners (reconstituted): 300–500 kcal/100 g
- Energy bars: 200–400 kcal per bar (40–80 g)
Compact meal ideas (weights and calories)
- Light breakfast (ready in 5–10 minutes): 70 g instant oats + 20 g powdered milk + 30 g nut butter + 20 g dried fruit = ~650 kcal; dry weight ~140 g.
- Trail lunch (no-cook option): 1 large tortilla (80 g) + 50 g vacuum-sealed salami + 40 g hard cheese + 30 g nut butter = ~900 kcal; pack weight ~200 g.
- Dinner (single-pot freeze-dried): 120–150 g pouch rehydrated = 650–900 kcal; pouch weight 120–200 g depending on brand.
- Snack pack (per day): 50 g mixed nuts (300 kcal) + 1 energy bar (250–300 kcal) + 30 g chocolate (160 kcal) = ~700–760 kcal; weight ~130–180 g.
- Cold-soak meal (no stove): 80–100 g couscous + 40 g protein powder + 40 g olive oil + 30 g dried veg = ~750–900 kcal; rehydrates in 10–20 minutes.
- Sample full-day menu (moderate day, ~3,400 kcal; total dry weight ~1,000–1,200 g):
- Breakfast: instant oats mix – 650 kcal
- Lunch: tortilla + cheese + salami + nut butter – 900 kcal
- Dinner: freeze-dried meal – 750 kcal
- Snacks/throughout: bars, nuts, chocolate – 1,100 kcal
- 3-day minimalist plan (aim to minimize fuel): prioritize cold-soak breakfasts and lunches, carry 1 hot dinner per night; substitute 2 dinners with no-cook high-calorie meals if zero-fuel strategy needed.
Stove and fuel choices with consumption benchmarks
- Canister stoves (isobutane/propane):
- Typical burn per 1 L boil: 8–12 g in calm conditions; 12–20 g in cold or windy conditions.
- Daily planning: 25–35 g/person/day for two hot meals and hot drinks in three-season conditions; 40–60 g/day in cold weather.
- Pros: light, fast ignition, compact. Cons: reduced pressure and performance at sub-freezing temps; limited refill options on long trips.
- Liquid fuel (white gas / multi-fuel):
- Typical consumption: plan ~35–60 g/day/person depending on number of boils and temperature; 500 ml bottle (≈370 g) often covers multiple days (7–10 days typical for 1 person on conservative use).
- Pros: reliable in cold, refuelable, good simmer control; Cons: heavier stove and fuel, priming required for some models.
- Alcohol stoves (denatured ethanol/meths):
- Rule of thumb: 30–60 ml alcohol per 1 L boil; plan 100–200 ml/day for 2–3 boils depending on conditions.
- Pros: very light and simple; Cons: slower boil times, poor wind performance, lower heat output for melting snow.
- Solid fuel tabs (Esbit) and wood stoves:
- Esbit tab: one tab ~4–5 g; one tab may manage a small boil – plan 2–4 tabs/day for basic meal needs.
- Wood stoves: fuel-free carry but dependent on availability of dry wood and legal restrictions; slower to control and heavier shelters may be needed for reliable use in wet areas.
- Cold-soak and no-burn strategies:
- Cold-soak meals remove fuel needs entirely: choose couscous, instant cold-soak ramen alternatives, tuna packets, nut butter, tortilla wraps, and meal replacements.
- Good for short trips or saving fuel weight; plan extra high-calorie snacks to offset lower fat content in some cold-soak mixes.
Practical rules: calculate total planned boils (1 boil ≈ 1 L) × stove-specific fuel-per-boil + 25–50% reserve; prefer canned/refillable fuel systems for extended trips; store fuel safely and separate from food.
